Origin of the Cold War Essay Example for Free

Origin of the Cold War Essay For more than four decades, world politics revolved around the Cold War. The foreign policy of both the United States and Soviet Union was dominated by the Cold War with far reaching social, political, economic and military consequences. The domestic politics and foreign policy of other nations around the world was also shaped by the Cold War. Very few countries escaped its influence. Since the distinctive features of the Cold War era was shaped in the years that immediately followed the Second World War, an analysis of its origin is important in understanding international history in the second half of the twentieth century. There are various conflicting interpretations of the origin of the Cold War. These interpretations are often based in deep philosophical and ideological differences. A great majority of these interpretations were themselves structured by the ongoing Cold War. The end of the Cold War together with the release of important information over the past years has provided an opportunity to reassess its origins. The earlier controversies concerning the responsibility of the Cold War can now be transcended in an attempt to understand what happened and why. New questions concerning the origins of the Cold War can now be asked. In this paper, I will focus on the international system and the events in the United States as recounted by Kissinger. Kissinger analyzes geopolitics and the perception of threat, ideology and social reconstruction, and strategy and technology. He examines how the American perceptions of national security interests were influenced by global distribution of power and deeply ingrained ideological predispositions. He also demonstrates how the need for hegemony helped shape the political conditions of other nations. There are two dominant views concerning the outbreak of the Cold War. The first is the view that the Soviet Union was mainly responsible for the outbreak. This view pictures the Soviet Union as persistently expansionist and being motivated ideologically. According to this perception, the United States authority wanted to get along with the Soviets. However, they realized that accommodation was not possible since the Soviet authorities quested for world domination. The second view is that the policies of the United States were also expansionist and therefore contributed to the beginning of the Cold War. The idea points towards the long history of American expansionism and argues that United States policies were shaped by ideological beliefs and economic interests to a large extent. It is this second idea that I wish to explore in the writing of Kissinger. The American foreign policy until the early into the twentieth century was characterized by isolationist tendency. According to Kissinger (29), the rapidly expanding power of the United States and the gradual collapse of international system that was previously centered in Europe projected the United States into world affairs. There was wide recognition by the United States administrations during this era that America had an important role to play in world affairs. The international balance of power could not be conceived by American leaders without the role of the United States. There was a deep philosophy that underlay this idea; America had an obligation to spread its principles throughout the world (Kissinger 30). The rise of new powers had been vehemently fought by European powers. The United States was however confident that they could resist any challenge. The American foreign policy was crafted on the conviction that the constant wars that were being fought in Europe were consequences of Europe’s cynical methods of statecraft (Kissinger 32). Ingrained in the American thought was the idea that peace depended on the promotion of democratic institutions. America saw it her responsibility to spread this idea. A great majority of American leaders were convinced that the United States had a special responsibility to spread its values in order to foster world peace. American foreign policy was radically transformed by Roosevelt who strongly believed that America was a great power. He also believed that in a world regulated by power, the natural order of things was reflected in the concept of spheres of influence (Kissinger 40). He was committed to engaging America to reestablish the equilibrium. He saw Germany and Russia as posing a threat to United States dominance in Europe and Asia respectively. He particularly saw Russia as holding in her hands the fate of the coming years. It is during this era that the United States begun seeing Russia as a possible threat to her interests. Weakening of Russia thus became a major issue. The United States saw itself as solely responsible for the security of the entire mankind. This perception foreshadowed its containment policy that was later developed after the Second World War. These sentiments obviously rubbed any nation that desired dominance the wrong way, invariably resulting ion conflict. With the Soviet Union having its own philosophy, the result would not have been anything apart from the Cold War. Work Cited Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy. Simon and Schuster.

Marketing strategy for Swatch Original watches in Vietnam

Marketing strategy for Swatch Original watches in Vietnam Statement of purpose Swatch (Swiss + watch) is a famous brand of the Swatch Group. In Vietnam, one of the main product lines of Swatch is the Original family which targets the young Vietnamese (aged, 18-25). In recent years, the brand faces not only fierce competition but also new opportunities. Thus, this report aims to introduce an approach for Swatch to increase the brand identity, sales volume and maintain customer loyalty in Vietnam market. Wrist watches industry in Vietnam: Back ground: Due to the limitation of available data, it is difficult to account the numbers of wrist watch brands in Vietnam market. However, according to an informal source, it is believed that there are about 400 brands have been recorded. They are classified to eight levels (website): Mass market Mid-end market US$150 -300 Premium market US$1.000 10.000 Low market US$10 50 Upper mid-end market US$300 -500 Super premium market >US$10.000 Lower mid-end market US$50-150 High-end market US$ 500 1.000 Focus segment: (US$50 -150) Currently, Swatch Original watches address in lower mid-end level, with the pricing vary from US$60 -80 (website) Players in lower mid-end market include: Casio, Endura, Guess, Ogival, Seiko, Swatch, Titan, Roamer, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. However, Casio is the main competitor of Swatch because these firms target the same segment, the young Vietnamese with extrovert lifestyle. Company and products: Swatch Swath is one of 19 brands which belong to the Swatch Group. This brand is famous for watches that utilising plastic housing, strap, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. with fresh and cool designs. Mission statement: Though Swatch hasnt announced its mission statement, it is believed that the brand implicit mission is to offer low cost, high quality and accurate watch with synthetic material (website) Products: Swatch has 5 product lines named: Skin, Irony, Original, Beat, Bijoux, in which the Original family is designed as youthful, witty and colourful. Distribution: Swatch watches are distributed in Vietnam mostly through Trading Development Company Limited (TDC Ltd.), the authorised distributor of Swatch. Following that, TDC Ltd. utilises 6 retail outlets (shop-in-shops, stores) and its website to deliver watches to customers (website). However, the website of the dealer is poor developed. The website provides poor contents in meager format. There are little details of Swatch watches specifications and the prices of most of the products are unavailable to check. Casio Casio Company Co. Ltd. is a famous company in consumer electronics field. Casio watches are designed as both digital and analogue watches. Mission statement: Casio Watches believe the beauty of time lies in precision with no compromise, no shades of grey and no half measures. Its all about accuracy and control (http://www.thewatchhut.co.uk/casio-watches.htm). Products: Casio has 13 different brands that target different segment. Among these, Casio Standard is competitor of Swatch Original. Casio Standard: This is the basic range of Casio watches. The concepts behind Standard are digital watches that are durable, long lifetime battery and affordable price. Casio standard target low to lower mid-end market with the pricing vary from US$35 -80 (website) In overall, regarding added functions, durability and battery lifetime, Casio watches are more competitive against Swatch (figure). Situation analysis: Internal environment analysis: Tangible resources: The Swatch Group is the world largest watchmaker corporation. Belonging to the Group, there are 156 production centers which are in charge of producing watches and watch components (website). Furthermore, there are 6 electric components and systems companies(website) which take response for manufacturing automotive, industrial electronics. Together, these firms form a system of interrelated values chains, so each parts of Swatch watches are produced with high compatibility and high quality. On the other hand, the Swatch Group has 6 general corporate companies (website) which specialise in RD, designing, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Thus, Swatch watches are likely to be updated with the latest technologies and designs. Intangible resources: Considering branding, it is one of the most valuable assets of the Swatch Group. Firstly, the Swatch brand is well known in many places worldwide. Secondly, there is a solid reputation for the brand as Swiss made watches and cool design watches. Unique selling proposition: Overall the corporations intangible and tangible assets contribute to three exclusive points: The brand reputation for quality and creative designs Ability to produce a vast array of different watch collections Ability to develop and implement new technologies and new materials in watches External environment analysis: Political: Vietnam is a country which follows one-party political system, with the central role of the Communist Party. This entity is believed to put an end to a long time of internal conflicts and generally conductive to political stability. However, regarding wrist watch businesses, there is little support from the government, the tariff on imported watches is relatively high (20% imported tax) compares to other nations (5% imported tax in Philippine) (website). Economic: Over the last decade, Vietnam is one of the best performing economies in the world. Real GDP has grown on average by 7.3 percent per year during 1995-2005, reached 90.64 billions US$ in 2008. In 2010, GDP of the first nine months is predicted to increase by 6.52% as compared to the same period last year (Vietnam key country index WB). Considering the GNI per capita, it rose double from US$ 390 in 2000 to US$ 910 in 2008 (Worldbank). As the economy continues to grow, Vietnam has moved from poorest country list to lower-middle income group in 2010, with average income per capita reached an estimated US$ 1.200. (Ministry of planning and industry) Consumer Confident Index of Vietnam remains in the top score groups (14th out of 50) in the first half 2009 (figure). Likewise, Vietnamese customers showed a great optimistic about future prospect, with the trend went upward from 85 points in the first half 2009 to 109 points in the second half of the same year (figure). Thus, it is confident to say that Vietnamese will spend more in the next year. Overall, it is believed that Vietnam economic is still growing briskly in 2011 and customers are more willing to purchase luxury products as they are becoming wealthier. Thus, there are relatively high potential for wrist watch demand in the next year. Social: Population Vietnam is one of the largest population countries in the world (ranks 13), with the composition of population reached 87,279,754 in 2009 (Worldbank). Among that, 20% of the total population is at age 15-24 in which there are approximately 1.45 million males in Ha Noi city and Ho Chi Minh (Nielsen). The number of young females is roughly equal to young males. Lifestyle: Vietnamese youngsters (aged, 15-24) are identified in three categories: Regular (48%), In-betweens (27%) and Uber modern (23%) (Nielsen). Regular group is limited in social activity and traditional values whereas the Uber modern is more individual and has high demand for social and consumer activity. On the other hand, the in-betweens embody a combination of the Regulars daily routine and Uber moderns mind set. Thus, there is a large gap between how the three youngster groups prefer products features. Regular: they are conservative buyers who look for established brand watch. They prefer durability, products functions and value over cost. In betweens: they are trendy and fun loving who look for similar values as the Uber modern, however, their consumer activity is comparatively lower. Uber modern: they are extrovert, enthusiastic who look for cool watches which can reflect their style. They are also impulse buyers. Approaches to the young Vietnamese: (see more detail in appendix B) The main points that Swatch should consider are: High quality products Creative designs watches Innovative marketing campaigns Technology: Currently, the most remarkable technology trend in Vietnam is communication technology. It is estimated that by the end of September 2010, there was 142.1 million of cellular phone subscribers. On the other hand, in 2010, the numbers of internet users was 26.6 million (Ministry of planning). Among the composition of internet users, a large part is young Vietnamese. It is reported that 88% of aged 15-24 Vietnamese (in HN and HCM) uses internet more than once a day. Moreover, Vietnamese youth show great fascinated to cyber activities, with 49% of those surveyed by TNS Vietnam had responded that they engaged in social networking (TNS). On the other hand, a lot of Vietnamese youngsters are also TV user, as the research of TNS pointed out that one of teens main activities is watching TV and movie (TNS). In conclusion, TV and internet are very potential communication channels to approach Vietnamese young generation. However, telephones pose a deliberate threat to wrist watches as they are designed with clock capabilities as well. SWOT analysis: Strengths: Swatch watches value perceived is very high among young customers For a long time, Swiss watchmakers have built for their watches a solid reputation of quality and reliability which have been experienced by numerous Vietnamese. Through mostly word of mouth, young Vietnamese have been profoundly influenced by this perception. The creative and artistic appearances The Swatch watches of the Original family have long been favored for its design. Bering simply characterized by plastic housing and trap, those products can come up in vast array of different styles from the fresh and wittiness of Gent to the dandy and femininity of Lady. Weaknesses: Electronic commercial website is poorly developed It is believe that the distributors website with regards to a bridge connects customers and the firm is not well designed. The website provides poor contents in meager format. There are little details of Swatch watches specifications and the prices of most of the products are unavailable. By contract, the results for keywords such as Swatch Vietnam, dai ly Swatch give 242.000 addresses; however, the authorised dealers website is not among the top results. Thus, this is very inconvenience for customers to find the website. Few added values A part from branding and designing, there is few added values from Swatch watches as compare to competitors products. In terms of additional functions, durability and battery lifetime, Casio watches are move competitive over Swatch. Threats: Threats from competitors (High) A major threat which Swatch has to confront is the fierce competition of rivalry brands such as Casio G-shock, Casio Standard, Tommy Hilfiger and so on. Especially Casio Vietnam, this firm has built a wide and large distribution network, with roughly 36 stores in HCM and about 6 stores in HN. Threats from replica watches (Low) On the other hand, counterfeits of branded watches also pose an implicit risk. Firstly, they are cheap. Spending about US$25 US$75, people can have a replica of luxury watch which is difficult to be detected just by judging its appearance. Secondly, replica watches are selling in many places and in the internet without being banned by the government. Threats from substitute (Medium) The large number of mobile phones used in Vietnam is another threat to Swatch. However, mobile phones are vulnerable to water and their batteries are not last for long and must be charged daily. Threats from governments policy (Medium) Finally, the high imported tax on watches of Vietnam government increases the costs of the Swatch distributor and adds higher VAT to the end customers. Consequently, the profit margin for the dealer goes down while the retail prices rise up. Opportunities: The increasing Vietnamese household income There is a bright prospect for Swatch watches as Vietnam economic is growing relatively fast. There is an estimated 77% in HN households and 67.5% in HCM achieved middle income rank and above (Nielsen). Hence, increasing income can boost up the demand for quality wrist watches. The increasing of young population Secondly, there is a population of 3 million of urban Vietnamese who are at age 18-24 (Statistical yearbook). They are currently demographic targets of Swatch Vietnam and a vast major of them have not been converted to customers. Furthermore, it is estimated that in the next 1-3 years, there will be roughly 1.5 million young Vietnamese enter the target market (Statistical Yearbook). Marketing strategy for Swatch in Vietnam market: Poster generic strategies, the Differentiation strategy will be implemented for Swatch in Vietnam. This strategy will be designed to differentiate Swatch and the competitors, then conductive to the raising of the brand awareness. Furthermore, the strategy is also expected to boost up sales volume in the targeted markets. Overall, the marketing strategy will aim to emphasize strong points of Swatch watches that are the Swiss made reputation and cool designs. Segmentation and targeting: Segmentation: Variable Typical breakdowns Geographic North Vietnam Ha Noi Middle Vietnam Da Nang South Vietnam Ho Chi Minh, Can Tho Demographic Gender Male Female Age 0-10 10-14 14-17 18-25 26-35 36-49 50-64 65+ Psychology Life style Regular In-betweens Uber Modern Targeting: Regarding geographic variable, there are five key cities in Vietnam (Nielsen). However, only HN and HCM can be targeted markets. First of all, there are considerable high expenses to open a Swiss wrist watch store due to high stocking costs, renting and interest rate. On the other hand, Swatch should invest more in HN and HCM market in order to achieve sustainability and profitability. Males and females at age 15-25 will be the target group of the firm. Because the designs of the Swatch Original are shaped as youthful, witty and colourful, which are symbol of youth. Following that, the choice market is narrowed down to 50% of the young Vietnamese who are fashion seekers (In-betweens and Uber modern group). Positioning: In order to incorporate with the differentiation strategy, Swatch Original watches will be positioned based on its two main advantages: Swiss made quality and youthful design. On the other hand, the Original watches have higher value as compare to Casio Standard in overall (figure). Hence, the products should be positioned as more value more price. Objectives: Marketing objectives: Increase brand awareness in HN and HCM market by 20% by the end of 2011 Financial objectives: Increase sales volume by 15% by the end of 2011 Marketing programmes: Marketing mix Product policy: The product choice is the Original family which embody for youthful, artistic and outlandish. New designs should be developed regularly and new collections must be released each year because the young Vietnamese are well updated to the new trends of global youngsters Regarding quality, it is vital that Swatch watches must satisfy the customers expectation of the products. Basically, the watches have to be water-resistant (up to 100 feet) and durable enough to take certain levels of impact without being scratched or broken. Additionally, packaging should also be designed artistically in order to contribute to the brand image and satisfy customers expectation. Place policy: Push strategy In short-term, Swatch watches are distributed mainly through the authorised dealers retail outlets and its website. In long-term, as the Vietnam market grows mature, Swatch manufacturer should consider open Swatch stores which are decorated in artistic style and sell only Swatch watches. These selling entities will polish the brand image and become a channel to communicate the firms campaigns to customers. Furthermore, new Swatch stores should be opened in other cities which have high household income such as Hai Phong, Can Tho and Da Nang, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. However, these stores are required to locate in good location and well decorated. Pull strategy To adapt with customers expectation and to retain their loyalty, a pull strategy must be implemented in which customers can order their favourite watches through the authorised distributor, who in turn asks the Swatch manufacturer for those products. Regarding an important source of Swatch watches information, the website of TDC Ltd. should be improved. Actions that the firm should take are re-designing and working with a SEO (Search Engine Optimization) agency. These steps aim at raising the websites attractiveness and improving its accessibility. By contract, information about pricing, watches specification and new collections must also be updated regularly. Pricing policy: Pricing from the Swatch manufacturer to the distributor A cost-based value approach should be employed by Swatch manufacturer. The pricing to the wholesaler is set by taking total production costs plus desired margin. Thus, a fair price can be offered to the distributor. Furthermore, as businessmen are very price conscious, the firm should also leverage them by price promotion. Pricing from the distributor to customers Value-based pricing policy should be employed for Swatch watches. As Swatch watches quality and designs are highly evaluated. Hence, the price should not be low; otherwise, it may confuse customers about the watches value. On the other hand, the pricing also reflect the value of Swatch watches against Casio Standard. So the products price should ranged from US$60- US$80 On the other hand, a pricing relation policy should also be implemented. For customers who have purchased more than three watches, they will receive a loyalty card which offer 15% discount for next purchases. This policy is not only aim to incentive customers but also build a firm footing for Swatch community in Vietnam in future. Promotion policy: A promotion policy is built to retain customer loyalty and leverage them to re-purchase Swatchs watches. Two types of sales promotion that will be applied are loyalty card and free gift giving on special occasions. Marketing communication mix: In order to achieve to the firms objectives in 2011, it is vital that Swatch must employ different media channels to reach its targeted customers. Three approaches that will be applied are advertising, public relations and sales promotion. These media channels are not only being utilised to convey the brand message and image but also to introduce a fashion trend to young Vietnamese. Finally, product features such as quality and designs must be emphasised in the media message. Advertising: (see detail in appendix C) Advertising on magazines and newspapers for youth Advertising in social media such as Facebook, Twitter, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Advertising in internet media Advertising in TVs Public relations: (see detail in appendix C) Holding flash mob events Sales promotion Where as advertising and public relations are implemented to increase Swatch watches awareness and sales volume. The promotion approach is used to retain customer. Two types of sale promotion are loyalty program and free gift offering. With loyalty card promotion, customers will be given a special ticket for each time they purchase a Swatch watch. Following that, they will get a discount card for 3 tickets that they collected. On the other hand, on special events like Vietnamese New Year Event or Christ Mast, a free gift will be giving to customers associating with the watch they buy. Conclusion: Because of Vietnamese average income is rising, it is believed that the demand for wrist watch will grow higher in next years. Hence, Swatch should invest more in RD, distribution and communication channels to not only increasing revenues but also to capture more market share. Appendix Appendix A Figures Figure 1 Vietnam quarterly GDP growth Source: Taking stock 2010 An update on recent Vietnam economic development Figure 2.1 1H Nielsen Consumer Confident Index (Source: Nielsen Global Online Survey Consumer Confidence, March 2009) Figure 2.2 _ 2006-2009 Consumer Confidence Index: Vietnam Source: Nielsen 2H 2009 Global Omnibus Study, September 2009 Reasons for favourite brand of Vietnamese youth 59% Top quality 39% Innovative, ground breaking 38% Well designed, easy to use 34% Affordable, good value of money 27% Great marketing and advertising Figure 3 Reasons for favourite brand of Vietnamese youth Source: TNS Vietnams shifting consumer landscape Swatch Original Product attributes Casio Standard 3 Materials 3 3 Lifetime battery 4 5 Cool design 3 3 Durable (water-proof, shock-proof, scratch-proof) 4 5 Reputable brand 4 4 Precision 4 3 Additional functions 4 Very low Low Normal High Very high 1 2 3 4 5 Figure 4 Value assessing between Swatch Original and Casio Standard This figure is designed based on my estimation from available data in http://store.swatch.com/ and http://www.casio-intl.com/wat/g_shock/standard.html Vietnamese youth top sources to get news and information Television 84% Internet 58% Magazines and newspapers 24% Word of mouth 13% Figure 5 Young Vietnamese sources of information Source: TNS Vietnams shifting consumer landscape Figure 6 Vietnamese youths digital life Source: TNS Vietnams shifting consumer landscape Figure 7 Vietnamese youths attitude toward brand interaction on-line Source: TNS Vietnams shifting consumer landscape Appendix B Approaches to Vietnamese youth The FCB matrix was invented by Foot, Cone Belding Advertising. The matrix is applied to explain customer buying behaviour and present approaches for media strategy. There are two directions in the FCB Grid: product involvement (high low) and product emotion (thinking feeling). Thinking Feeling High involvement Swatch Original watches Expensive products but decision making is driven by emotion Low involvement It is believed that a majority part of young Vietnamese who aged 15-25 spending a lot of their time for study and having little time for working. As a result, their financial availability is mostly depended on their parents. Which this in mind, wrist watches which cost them US$ 60- 80 will be considered as expensive products. Thus, Swatch watches are classified as high involvement products. On the other hand, Swatch watches are fashion accessories which youngsters can use them to express their style, make them feel cool and fresh. Thus, Swatch watches involve high emotional responses. Regarding reasons for favourite brand (figure 3), it is clear that products quality, designs have significant impacts on Vietnamese youth by 59%, 39% respondents respectively. In contract, these elements engage high emotional responses as they are mostly based on customers perceived value. Hence, quality, designs should be focus points in Swatch media campaigns. In conclusion, FCB Grid suggests that Swatch advertising campaigns should be creative and inspire customers by psychological benefits. Appendix C Communication mix choice Advertising: Advertising on magazines and newspapers for youth Newspapers and magazines is the number three source of information and news to young Vietnamese (figure 5). They use this channel to pull out information of various aspects which they concern include entertainment, fashion trends, news and so on. Thus, it is confident to say that printed media can deliver the brand image and message to a majority of Vietnamese youth. Advertising in social media This approach is absolute must in order to reach the targeted groups. Social networking is a new trend in Vietnam, with half of the online youngster engages in (figure 6). The advantage of this media channel is that information can be spread and shared quickly and widely as internet users are keen in communicating with others. On the other hand, young Vietnamese also pose a positive attitude toward brand interaction on-line. They accept to interact with the brands in many activities from e-mail to news and social (figure 7). Thus, a Swatch community can be built to provide not only information about the products but also to offer promotions and provide a fan space. Furthermore, through social networking, global contests of Swatch (CreArt, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) can be introduced to Vietnamese. Famous cyber communities include: Facebook, Twitter and Youtube. Advertising in internet media Internet magazines or information portals for youth are viable mediums for Swatch. They are Vietnamese youngster favourite sources of information in which they rank number two among the others (figure 5). The advantage of this media include: low costs, wide market coverage. Popular websites include: www.hihihehe.com, www.kenh14.vn, www.hoahoctro.vn, www.zing.vn Advertising in TVs TV media should be considered as a channel to reach customer. It is reported that television is the youngsters number one source of news and information. Its advantages are wide reach (% of targeted customers who watch the advertisement) and high frequency (number if time each customer watches the advertisement). Hence, TV advertising can highly increase the brand awareness among young customers. However, there are relatively high costs (costs to produce television commercials and costs for booking TV channels) in utilising this medium. However, it is notable that the advertisements should be creative in order to impress the young audiences. Furthermore, advertisement must be launched at an effective frequency to maximise the effect while spending reasonable budgets. Public relations: Holding special events is an indirect way to advertise for the products to the targeted customers. Alternatively, TDC limited can also give aid to events that are attractive to young customers. It is noticed that special events must be creative and bring joyful to audiences. Consequently, the products image is expected to be benefited from word of mouth and news on magazines. Holding flash mob events Recently, there is a new trend of the youngsters, flash mob event. It is recorded that three big events (with over 1200 participants) and a lot of small ones has taken place in HN and HCM in 2010. Thus, TDC limited can contact with key members of flash mob groups to offer them sponsorship. In return, these members will indirectly promote for Swatch watches and influence the preference of the other event participants.

Geography of Environmental Injustice and Health Inequalities

Geography of Environmental Injustice and Health Inequalities Geography of Environmental Injustice and Health Inequalities in the Nigeria Abstract The unfair distribution of toxic wastes and other acute and chronic health hazards on vulnerable populations, which have contributed to negative health inequalities in less developing nations, such as been observed in Nigeria is term as global health inequalities. The link between environmental injustices, risks, and health inequalities has not been well established in Nigeria, in understanding its impact on futures health outcomes. The issue of environmental injustices and health inequalities is treated as a distinct issue from the problems associated with health, well-being and environmental sustainability. This research aims to understand health outcomes and its associated future health burden taken into consideration in the link between pursuing environmental injustice, and health inequalities in the oil producing region of Nigeria. Ultimately, examine the conceptual issues relating to environmental injustices, health inequalities, and non-communicable diseases that challenges the development of better future health outcomes programmes and planning for environmental justices in Nigeria. Introduction Global Environmental Injustices, is the unfair circulation of toxic wastes and other acute and chronic health hazards on vulnerable populations, which have contributed to negative health inequalities in less developing nations, such as been observed in Nigeria (Schroeder et al., 2008: 551; Roberts, 2007: 286; Adeola, 2000: 686, 2001:45) has been observed in Nigeria for over 50 years due to the exploration of crude oil. According to Roberts (1985), the industrialization of any region is greatly influenced by the presence of rich mineral deposits, resulting in the heavy industrialisation of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The Niger Delta region is the location for most of the oil exploration activities in Nigeria, resulting in many people and companies attraction to the area. The migration flow and influence of the various companies has adverse impact on health outcomes. In addition, environmental risks such as oil spillage, gas flaring, and other wastes resulting from oil production polluting the environment could affect health and well-being on the residing communities (Nabofa, 2011). Another major cause for concern is the cumulative effect of the crude oil contents on the health and wellbeing of the people over a long period of time (Khursid et al., 2008). Ajayi et al., (2009), revealed in a study carried out on natural radioactivity and trace elements in crude oils implications for health, that Niger Delta oil, although, has low metallic contents; however, the cumulative effects of the radioactivity and metallic properties on health outcomes is alarming. Therefore, communities in the oil producing areas live with a lot of externally generated factors; resulting from additional pressure to highly stressful ways of living, leading to specific risk related non-communicable diseases (NCDs), for instance skin cancer and psychological disorders (Ilo, 1998; Loewenson, 1998; Kathari and Nababasing, 1996; Fuentes et al., 1994). According to Ana et al. (2010), It is apparent that populations living in highly industrialized communities such as Port Harcourt with higher environmental risk factors may be more vulnerable to pollution-related morbidities including a higher predisposition to cancers of the lung, skin. and eye. It is thus, apparent, that the major driver of environmental injustices is the activities of Multinational/Transnational Corporation engaged in the oil business. As the major revenue generation for the country, oil production had been followed by countless environmental problems, associated with other broad inequalities in livelihood, wealth, well-being, poverty; interactions and inequalities in the distribution of burden and responsibilities of the health outcomes. Statement of Problem Literature on environmental justice have emphasised that there is growing concern about the health outcomes associated with intensive oil and gas activities in many communities (Palinkas, et al.,1993) as well as concentration of these occurrences in poor communities (Gill, et al.,2011). The link between environmental injustices, risks, and health inequalities has been established internationally but in Nigeria, this link has not been established in understanding its impact on health outcomes. The issue of environmental injustices and health inequalities is treated as a distinct issue from the problems associated with health, well-being and environmental sustainability. Are the questions of health outcomes and its associated future health burden actually taken into consideration the link between environmental injustice, and health inequalities? Can Nigeria (Government, Multinational companies, and the communities) especially the oil producing region achieve health equity without promoting environmental justice and empowerment of the vulnerable population as a result of the burden of NCDs? These questions will be examined with conceptual issues relating to environmental injustices, health inequalities, and NCDs that challenges the method of developing better future health outcomes programmes and planning for environmental justices in Nigeria. Objective of the Study According to Pearce et al., (2010), One potential driver for the increasing geographical differences in health is the disparity in exposure to key characteristics of the physical environment that are either health promoting or health damaging. Thus, the objectives of the study are: to examine linkages between environmental injustices, health inequalities and health outcome; to study and understand the reasons for the prevalence increase in health inequalities and the consequences on the future especially in the Niger Delta region; to clarify conceptual issues relating to environmental justice and inequalities as it relates to Nigeria and to evaluate what considerable impact establishing the link will have on the goal of environmental justices. Justification of study The politics of oil in the Niger Delta region have promoted the lack of transparency and accountability throughout the region. There are inadequate environmental assessments on the impact of the oil industry on the health of the people. While NCDs rates of causing respiratory ailments, and other illnesses are increasing, the government do not want to fully acknowledge their contribution to these health outcomes. It is imperative to undertake a conceptual clarification of what environmental justice and health inequalities mean in the context of the oil producing communities in Nigeria within the theoretical framework of justice theory, and health inequalities. This will lead to a more imperatively comprehensive spatial distribution studies with a multi-disciplinary approach to identify health consequences within the oilÂÂ   and non-oil producing regions (Ogri, 2001: 20; Dung et al., 2008; Ana et al., 2009) so as to properly assess environmental health disparities through the use of Geospatial techniques. The research will contribute to literatures on the global environmental injustices and health inequalities and the growing need for environmental justices. In addition, understanding these linkages would assist regulators and operators in the oil producing regions to address questions of social and environmental justice; through suitable allocation of scarce resources for rapid response, distribution of cost and benefit and promote community level participation for sustainable development and better health outcome and well beings Time scale Schedule The first year will be devoted to the review of relevant literature, proposal writing, and fulfilling additional training requirements. Included in the first year is the initial generated data period (initial generated data period for the literature review and data collection). The second year will be for the actual fieldwork and the analysis of the data; the first six months will be used for data collection and the next six months for data analysis. The third will be devoted to writing up of the thesis. Methodology Study area The Niger Delta region of Nigeria, consist of 37 million inhabitants, constituting about 22% of Nigerias population (Aaron, 2005), with a population density of 265 per square km. it is made up of nine states with more than 1500 communities hosting several oil and gas companies. The oil and gas resources of the Niger Delta accounts for over 85% of Nigerias gross domestic product (GDP), over 95% of the national budget, and over 80% of the nations wealth (Forest, and Sousa, 2006). The region is home to the oil wealth that made Nigeria the highest producer of petroleum in Africa, and the sixth in the world (Yakubu, 2008). Methods Spatial clustering methods and Quantitative risk assessment methods will be used to explain the first and second objectives of this research. Spatial clustering methods will be used to make sense of the complex geographic pattern between the environmental risk and health records in this research. Knowing whether this pattern and cluster exist and where they are located will provide important information for policy formulation and health research (Cromley and McLafferty, 2002; Croner et al., 1992). To avoid the bias of latency and migration, that can present itself in the cause of the research, only information on long term residents in the communities will be used. The spatial distribution of environmental risks will be used to provide a means for determining communities likely to become susceptible to health inequalities and NCDs. For this assessment, communities in the area were treated as substitute for human population and settlement while land, vegetation and rivers were considered the medium of land use. The thiessen polygon will be developed in ArcGIS environment to demarcate boundaries of the communities (because there are no community boundary shapefiles available) and determine the number/different environmental risk sites in each thiessen polygon that represents a community. Quantitative risk assessment will be used to characterise the effects expected from the exposure to an environmental risk, estimating the probability of occurrence of health effects, while estimating the number of occurrence in the population and recommending acceptable concentration of the risk in the air, water or food (Hallenbeck, 1993) Overlaying cluster maps with other spatial maps will provide clues about the cause of disease, while identifying variations in health outcomes linked to differences in the physical and social environment. Clarification of conceptual issues, (the 3rd objective) will be achieved by discussing the results of the analysis carried out within the study and existing studies on environmental injustice and health inequalities to provide justification for the research. Data and Source Secondary data will be collected from published government statistics from the states that make up the sample communities such as maps, etc. Data were also collected from relevant government agencies such as the health board and teaching hospitals information, and local government and chieftaincy affairs. The data will majorly focus on the use of some selected indicators of development vital for health well-being and basic amenities needed to support effective living. The local government areas will serve as aerial units of analysis while the choices of socio-economic indices will be based on the appropriateness of the variables and the availability of the data covering all the LGAs in the study region. The selected indicators that cut across health include number of NCDs, hospitals; doctors; midwives; hospital beds/ 000 populations (2014 census). In addition, GPS data of all environmental risks sites from 1985-2015, will be acquired from the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) in Nigeria (DPR, is the regulatory agency of oil and gas activities in Nigeria). The data were used to assess the environmental risks spatiotemporal distribution and determine exposure susceptibility in the areas. The datasets will contain information on geo-coordinates of individual risk sites, date of occurrence, date of survey and quantity of discharge. Analysis Spatial Analysis description for Average Nearest Neighbour Analysis, Getis-Ord General G tests for High and Low Cluster, and Cluster and Outlier Analysis will be performedin the study (see Appendix A). These spatial analyses were undertaken to measure the spatial pattern and relationship between risk that are spread over a given geographical region (Ebdon, 1985). It helps in assessing and determining the closeness and patterns of the environmental risks sites near settlements. The methods with generate geographical distribution, cluster and pattern analysis of environmental risk and spatio-temporal nature of the incidents. To examine the degree of deprivation among the local government areas in health variables, the Gini index descriptive statistical technique of date analysis was used. The Gini index of concentration examines the extent of concentration of each of the indicators among the local government areas. The Gini Coefficient ranges from zero to one, (0-1) with zero representing perfect equality, and 1 total inequality Intellectual and User Benefits The intellectual contribution of the study will be to enhance the understanding of the effects of socio-economic and cultural characteristics upon the spatial pattern of environmental injustice and health inequalities. The benefits of this research are a direct contribution to developing policy on health management strategy and planning for equality, environmental policy and its applications especially within vulnerable populations. For the researcher, there will be the academic benefits of doctoral research and training in health geography and the development of expertise in research methodology techniques. By working closely with interested parties, the researcher will gain insights into the relationships between academic research and the needs of users. Ethical considerations Full consent will be provided to all research participants with the full research disclosure and confidentiality according to the ethnical research procedure of the University of Edinburgh. Summary and conclusions As the major revenue generation for the country, oil production had been followed by countless environmental problems, associated with other broad inequalities in livelihood, wealth, well-being, poverty; interactions and inequalities in the distribution of burden and responsibilities of the health outcomes. The research aims to undertake a conceptual clarification of what environmental justice and health inequalities mean in the context of the oil producing communities in Nigeria within the theoretical framework of justice theory, and health inequalities. Leading to a more imperatively comprehensive spatial distribution studies with a multi-disciplinary approach to identify health consequences from the oil industry versus non-oil producing areas. Thus, properly assess environmental health disparities through the use of Geospatial techniques. The research will contribute to literatures on the global environmental injustices and health inequalities and the growing need for environmenta l justices. About me Right from my secondary school, Geography had been an extremely interesting field of study to me because of the vast range of topics involved and how it relates to every subject in one way or another, for instance, Health Geography and Public Health. Geography is the study of the world, and geographers proudly holds the keys to the worlds problems. These problems extend to, injustice, health, eco-systems, development, globalisation and natural disasters, all of which are areas which attract me. Geography has been essential for interpreting and solving the concerns of the world, and by furthering my geographical knowledge through the PhD studentship, it will enhance my ability to tackle the imminent problems relating to environmental injustice, crime, pollution. I have a particular interest in the human side of Geography and especially the topics of: health, medical, hazards and the environment. My interest in the PhD research which will covers processes functioning in time as well as space, linking health over the life course with processes of environmental change, human migration, human relations and length of exposures to different environmental risk factors. I am keen to explore the various spatial questions of how and why human health/environmental injustices varies from one area to another at the rate of population increase. I will be interested in examining how individual health- related practices and health outcomes relate to mans varying experience of physical and social environments and injustice. Dissemination The research outcome will be communicating with colleagues and your supervisors as well as with the wider community and, the funding body supporting your research. The dissemination activities include internal seminars, publications, conference presentations and exhibitions. References Aaron, K. (2005) Perspective: Big Oil, Rural Poverty, and Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health, 11, 127-134. http://dx.doi.org/10.13031/2013.18178 Adeola, F. (2000). Cross-National Environmental Injustice and Human Rights Issues: A Review of Evidence in the Developing World. American Behavioral Scientist, (43), 686-705. Adeola, F. (2001). Environmental Injustices and Human Rights Abuse: The States, MNCs, and Repression of Minority Groups in the World System. Human Ecology Review, 8(1), 39-59. Ajayi, T., Torto, N., Tchokossa, P., and Akinlua, A. (2009). Natural Radioactivity and Trace Elements in Crude Oils: Implication for health. Environ. Geochem. Health 31(1):61-69. Ana, G., Sridhar, M., and Asuzu, M. (2010) Environmental risk factors and hospital-based cancers in two Nigerian cities. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology Vol. 2(8), pp. 216-223. Ana, G., Sridhar, M., and Bamgboye, E. (2009). Environmental risk factors and health outcomes in selected communities of the Niger Delta area, Nigeria. Perspectives in Public Health, 129(4), 183-191. Cromley, E and McLafferty, S (2002). GIS and Public Health, Guilford Press. Croner, C., Pickle, L., wolf, D., and White, A. 1992. A GIS approach to hypothesis generation in epidemiology. In A. W Voss (Ed.), ASPRS/ACSM techinal papers, Vol 3. GIS and cartography (pp. 275-283). Washington, DC: ASPRS/ACSM DOI: 10.5897/JTEHS12.056 Dung, E., Bombom, L.; Agusomu, T. (2008). The effects of gas flaring on crops in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. GeoJournal, 73, 297-305. Ebdon, D. (1985) Statistics in Geography. 2nd Edition, Blackwell Publishing, Hoboken. Forest, J., and Sousa, M. (2006) Oil and Terrorism in the New Gulf: Framing U.S. Energy and Security Policies for the Gulf of Guinea. Lexington Books. Fuentes, A., Ehenreich, B., and Boston, M. (1994). Women in the Global Factory. Philadelphia: South End Press. Gill, D., Picou, J., and Ritchie, L. (2011) The Exxon Valdez and BP Oil Spills: A Comparison of Initial Social and Psychological Impacts. American Behavioral Scientist, 56, 3-23. Hallenbeck, W (1993). Quantitative risk assessment for environmental and occupational health (2nd ed.). Boca Raton. FL: Lewis. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.150.10.1517 Ikporukpo, C. (2004). Petroleum, Fiscal Federalism and Environmental Justice in Nigeria. Space and Polity, 8(3), 321-354. International Labour Organization ILO (1998). Economic and Social Effects of Multinational Enterprises in Export Processing Zones. Geneva: ILO Kathari. U., Nababsing, V. (1996). Gender and Industrialization. Port Louis, Mauritius: Editous de I Ocean Indeen. Khursid, R., Sheikk, M., and Igbal, S. (2008). Health of People Working/Living in the Viccinity of an Oil-polluted beach, near Karachi, Pakistan. East Mediterr. Health J. 14(1):179-82. Loewenson R 1998. Assessment of the health impact on occupational risk in Africa. Current situation and methodological Issues. Epidemiology, 10(5): 632-639. Nabofa, O., and Suoke Onohwosafe, P. (2011) The Need for Environmental Epidemiological Studies in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria, Ethno Med, 5(3): 201-204 Odigie, O. (2012) Environmental Justice and Poverty Alleviation: Roadmap to Sustainable Development in Nigeria NIALS Journal of Law and Public Policy Vol. 1 NJLPP, pp. 152-180. Ogri, O.O. (2001). A review of the Nigerian petroleum industry and the associated environmental problems. The Environmentalist, 21, 11-21. Palinkas, L., Petterson, J., Russell, J. and Downs, M. (1993) Community Patterns of Psychiatric Disorders after the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1517-1523. Pearce, J., Richardson, E., Mitchell, R., and Shortt, N. (2010). Environmental justice and health: the implications of the socio-spatial distribution of multiple environmental deprivation for health inequalities in the United Kingdom. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 35(4), 522-539. Roberts (1985). Biology: A Functional Approach. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Roberts, T. (2007). Globalizing Environmental Justice. Environmental Justice and Environmentalism: The Social Justice Challenge to the Environmental Movement, 285-321. Salako, A., Sholeye, O and Ayankoya, S. (2012) Oil spills and community health: Implications for resource limited settings. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences Vol. 4(9), pp. 145-150. Schroeder, R., St. Martin, K., Wilson, B., and Sen, D. (2008). Third World Environmental Justice. Society for Natural Resources, 21, 547-555. Yakubu, L. (2008) Nigeria Loses N5.8b Daily to Gas Flaring. The Guardian, 5th August Appendix A Average Nearest Neighbour: Getis-Ord Genral G Test: Spatial Autocorrelation Analysis (Global Morans I): Outlier Analysis:

Muromachi Period Essay -- essays research papers

The Muromachi style of Zen Buddhism has influence art and design ever since it’s beginning in the 14th century. Although it was influenced by the Chinese styles at a parallel time, they both are still influential and noticed in today’s world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For years Japanese Ink Painting continued to be consistent with a basis on nature, and simplicity. Was the beginning of Minimalism in Japan? Was it intentional? The open composition of space and content on paper is a key of today’s design. The simplicity of monochromatic work is still appreciated in almost every art form.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This is a contrast to the Renaissance that occurred during the same time period. There was never work similar in Europe, it was mostly elaborate and colorful. This proves that the Asian styles are the origin of minimalism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even in architecture and landscape, there was interpretation and consistence of nature. The â€Å"Zen Garden† is a key concept that has lasted through the years. The Japanese styles of architecture were inspired by the consistency and simplicity of nature. They were the first to incorporate outside and inside, using a lot of patio space, and open surfaces, using round posts, and hinged translucent walls (Japan, 229).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The dominant styles of the Muromachi Period, Ink Painting, Landscape, and Architecture, are visible in today’s society in all cultures. Design fields incorporate the same appreciation that the Zen Buddhists did. Aesthetics, the set of principles of good taste and the appreciation on beauty, especially in the philosophy of art (Reader’s, 26). During the Muromachi Period, Sesshu (1420-1506) was known as the most famous artist in his medium of Ink Paintings. He was a monk that dedicated his life to painting. He traveled to areas of China and the natural landscape inspired his work heavily. He denied any influence from the Chinese art he saw on his journey. Like the work of Ni Zan (1308-1374), a Chinese Yuan Dynasty ink painter. (History, 842-861)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sesshu’s most noted work was the â€Å"Winter Landscape.† This painting was done after his excursion through China, in the 1467. It is 18.25 x 11.5† in size, and was produced by rushing black ink on a paper. It is overlapped view of a landscape in the foreground, with large mountainous cliff... ...on of the arts really polluted all meaning behind it. This is a dramatic time in which the true Zen Monks doubted their faith in the work they produced. The understanding of this, left room for sarcasm, and criticism, and eventually dilution of the Zen theories of nature and serenity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Put aside the debauchery of the art, this period has influenced so many cultures and design styles. It is key that styles like minimalism and even constructivism trace back to the monochromatic layout of image and text these monks produced.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a designer, it is astonishing to relate styles that I apply to work with these simple Buddhists. They lived a simple lifestyle, appreciating materials and imagery that both were provided by nature. The aesthetics applied is an important way of expressing yourself as a citizen of the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is important that we as people seek to make the world better for mankind. Appreciating the elements, and applying workable solutions was a key contribution these monks made to society. Whether it is through our work or our deeds, it would be ideal that we all follow their example.

Making False Confessions Essay -- Psychology, Learning Disabilities, M

Psychological research and application have established that it is not only people with learning disability or major mental illness that are susceptible to make false confessions. In order for a confession to be false, a person must either confess to a crime that he or she is completely innocent of or overstate his or her involvement in the crime. False confessions can be either voluntary or coerced. Although it is methodologically difficult to establish the frequency of false confessions, anecdotal evidence such as self-reports and case studies indicate that reported cases are only the ‘tip of the iceberg’. It appears that young people are particularly vulnerable and often make false confessions in order to protect others. Standardized psychological tests have been devised in order to assess personality factors such as suggestibility and compliance that render some people more vulnerable than others. The reason people make false confessions is typically due to a combina tion of factors such as psychological vulnerabilities, nature of the custodial confinement and the police interviewing tactics. Notorious cases of false confessions which have lead to the wrongful convictions of innocent people subsequently spending years in prison represent some of the worst cases of miscarriage of justice in Britain. One such cases, that of Engin Raghip of the so-called ‘Tottenham three’ will be discussed in the context of admissibility of psychological evidence in order to demonstrate how the judiciary has increasingly come to accept the psychological notion that most people, under certain circumstances, are susceptible to making false confessions. In order to better understand why people confess to crimes they have not committed, Kassin an... ...expert testimony in assessing the reliability of disputed confessions. The reason people make false confessions is typically due to a combination of factors such as psychological vulnerabilities, nature of the custodial confinement and the police interviewing tactics. Standardized psychological tests have been devised in order to assess personality factors such as suggestibility and compliance that render some people more vulnerable than others but these should never bee looked at in isolation. Studies indicate that reported cases are only the ‘tip of the iceberg’. It appears that young people are particularly vulnerable and often make false confessions in order to protect others. It is not only people with learning disability or major mental illness ´ that are susceptible to make false confessions; depending on the context, anybody can.

CTLLS Understanding Assessment in Education and Training Essay

Assessment is the act of appraisal, assessing or evaluation of the achievement of a student on a course (Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols, 2006). Similarly, Gravells (2013) defined assessment as the act of judging something or the process of observing students behavior samples and drawing inferences about the abilities and knowledge of the students. Educational assessment, on the other hand, is the process of documenting beliefs, attitudes, skills and knowledge usually in measurable terms. The educational assessment can focus on the learning community, individual learner, the education system, and the institution. When the teachers are doing assessments, they look at the behavior of the student’s by using variety of types of assessment in order to get the most accurate of the overall progress of the students (SQA, 2014). The purposes of types of assessment used in education and training Individual assessment-this is conducted prior intervention or instruction to establish the basis from which the individual growth of the student can be measured. The purpose of this type of assessment is to know the skill level of the student about a project and in helping the teacher in explaining the material more efficiently (SQA, 2001). Formative assessment- this is carried out throughout the project or course in general. The purpose of formative assessment is to aid learning and provide the teacher with the feedback of the work of the students (SQA, 2014). Summative assessment- this is carried out at the end of the project or course generally and are evaluative in nature. The purpose of summative assessment is to assign a course grade to the students and to summarize everything the students have learnt and in finding out if they understood it well. Diagnostic assessment- the purpose of diagnostic assessment is to improve the experience of the learner and their achievement level (SQA, 2014). Informal assessment- these result from the day-to-day spontaneous observations of the teachers of how the students perform and behave in class. The purpose of informal assessment is for the teacher to learn important insights into the abilities, inabilities and misconceptions of the students that might not be accurately represented through other formal assessments (SQA, 2001). The effectiveness of assessment methods used in education and training in relation to meeting the individual needs of learners Observation- formative peer observation helps in the improvement of teaching (Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols, 2006). Summative peer observation, on the other hand, involves evaluation of the effectiveness of teaching used for tenure, promotion and merit of decisions. Peer classroom observations are effective because they offer insights regarding improvement of the individual needs of the learners and in improvement of teaching. Moreover, the teachers will gain new perspectives and ideas about teaching through observation from their colleagues. This will improve the ability of teaching (Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols, 2006) questioning- it is one of the assessment methods used by teaches naturally daily in classroom in testing whether the learners have, understood, learnt and progressed ultimately against the defined learning objectives at the start of the session (Gravells, 2013). Tests- these are undertaken while the learning of the students is taking place with the purpose of improving learning and teaching of the individual students. They are effective since it capture the progress of the student in a program or in the institution (SQA, 2001). Professional discussion- it provides a holistic approach when conducting knowledge assessment and understanding. The method is useful and effective in determining the performance of the candidate and also the candidates’ abilities in decision making and analysis. SQA (2001) asserted that professional discussion method is one of the best ways of testing reliability and validity of the candidates evidence Witness testimony- it is one of the most reliable evidence resources if the witness is authentic. It is effective and a useful tool in helping in authentication of the evidence that the claim of the candidates have produced (SQA, 2014). Assignment- this is a problem solving exercise having clear structure, guidelines and specified length. According to Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols (2006), assignment is specifically suited to the learning outcomes assessment concerned with application of the learning skills and the knowledge and understanding related to a situation involving management of tasks. Assignment is effective as an assessment method since its development is relatively straightforward. It can also access a wide range of both practical and cognitive competencies, furthermore, it provides the candidates with a good opportunity of demonstrating initiatives. Lastly, Gravells (2013) stated that it can be used in integrating assessment across units and outcomes. Case study- according to SQA (2014), it consists of an event description normally in a text, electronic recording or a picture that concerns real situation. The case study is then followed multiple instructions prompting the candidate to analyze the situation, identify core issues and make conclusions before making suggestions or decisions on the course of action. Case studies are effective because it provides good opportunities for the learners to exercise skills in decision making and problem solving. Moreover, it allows the learners to demonstrate skills in time management, information gathering and analysis. Projects- this is an essay substantially written, treating issue or subjects in depth in a formal and methodological manner. The project is always based on literature research for the subject or even original research. Project assessment methods are effective in testing the ability of the learners in applying knowledge critically, evaluating evidence from different sources and drawing valid conclusions from the evidence and finally presenting their ideas in a coherent and clear report (SQA, 2001). Moreover, projects are effective since they allow scope for self-expression, and tests skill of higher order. The internal and external assessment requirements and related procedures of learning programs Internal and awarding organization’s requirements The school setting or a learning institution accepts the drive of improving teaching by making sure that the assessment serve the teaching purpose, and that the teaching is not negatively affected by assessments put in place for accountability. According to Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols (2006), successful teaching is grounded on evidence and are produced by learners during the activities of learning and in assessments, that shows whether; a learner has understood and learned and is capable of applying in different situation despite many attempts of learning and teaching, a learner has not yet understood and showed achievement a learner is ready for learning teaching and learning have not yet been successful Record keeping According to Gravells (2013), the assessors need to keep their assessment records they have undertaken on the learners. It is necessary to keep records because it allows tracking of the learners’ progress. Moreover, the external and internal verifiers will use the records in helping them in selecting sample decision of assessments for review. Lastly, the records can also be usd when monitoring the quality assurance activities in the school center. Learner tracking Learners tracking as a related procedure of learning program is significant to the assessor in thinking about the leaner during the assessment. According to SQA (2014), in tracking the learner, the assessor need to reflect on the following questions on the way of involving and tracking the learner in the process of assessment. This encourages a sense of ownership to the process of learning: Does the process of assessment match the knowledge acquisition sequence, and skills development in the training/learning program? Have the assessor avoided excessive assessment by making a consideration on the learners’ workloads in across and within subjects? Have the assessor reduce over assessment by finding opportunities of combining the assessments? Can the assessor identify instances of evidence that are naturally occurring? Is the required time for assessment realistic? Have the assessor considered using the e-assessment? Monitoring progress In the educational system, it is very important to know the extent of the progress towards objectives, aims and levels, and therefore the assessment concentrate often on finding out how much have been learnt by the learners. This is either done formally or informally. According to SQA (2001), in worst cases, this assessment type intensifies focus on the accountability disregarding the teaching quality. Johnson, Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols (2006) indicated that if there is a lot of pressure of achieving targets and to showing progress to the parents, it is likely that the teaching will imitate assessment. Gravells (2013) asserted that this is when the assessment negatively influences teaching. Quality systems They monitor progress of the learners and the assessment and are presented as a tool of improving teaching. This suggests that identifying reasons and remedies is practically the same as identifying gaps. At best, quality systems provide profile that use fine grained on common curriculum, and offer activities for remediation that are online (SQA, 2001). The ways in which minimum core elements can be demonstrated in assessing learners.Minimum core according to SQA (2014) is a way in which the tutor imbedding the functional skills to the learners such as English and mathematics. This can be achieved in different ways such as use of electronic white board activities that promotes ICT skills and English and allow students to a more present approach. Similarly, handouts can be used to ensure the learners have a direction and quantity in learning. The effectiveness of my own assessment practice The most significant factor in meeting the learners’ needs is understanding their individual learning requirements and needs. In my assessment practice, this has been my foundation for achievement especially the classroom environment. Currently in my practice, I have a group of 30 students, and therefore individual assessment of each and every student needs an understanding of each individual need and support for them to achieve the set objectives. My assessment has been effective since I have used multiple assessment methods such as observation and professional discussion hence allowing my students to achieve maximally and holistically. Moreover, my assessment practice has been effective because my rate of course completion is high, student satisfaction is excellent and the direct feedback I get from the industry has been positive. Moreover, I believe my assessment method is excellent because I do keep personal records of my resources and the instructional strategies I applied during my practice that were either useful or not useful. Lastly, I do participate in the informal and formal assessment and moderation in addition to undertaking professional development such as the PD program which I hope will help me in building continuous improvement in my practice. Areas for improvement in your own assessment practice Currently in my practice, there are also some areas that needs improvement. During my practice, I always ensure that I have enough resources in meeting the learners’ needs and for each of the units they learn. The first area that needs improvement is development of new resources and the learning processes since the resources available are limited. The organization where I practice need to put proper measures of ensuring that the resources are available for proper learning and assessment of the learners Secondly, I believe I need to improve on adopting the online and digital method of assessments like the e-assessments. This is because of their reliability compared to other methods. Moreover, e-assessment is easy to use where there are many learners. Moreover, it is easy to make comparison of the assessments results from different learners than using observation method in conducting the assessments. I also think that I should involve my students more in the assessment process than before, and monitor their skill development and progress. This is because the learners are involved in the training because they want to develop knowledge and skills that is needed to compare their training course, get the credentials and then apply their skills in their places of work. Conclusion In conclusion, the essay report discussed the research carried out on assessing learners in education and training. It discussed the purposes of different types of assessment, and analyzed the effectiveness of different assessment methods in relation to meeting the individual needs of the learners. Moreover, I identified the internal and external assessment requirements and related procedures of learning programs. The report also analyzed the ways in which minimum core elements in assessing learners can be demonstrated. Finally, the report reflected on what I have done and presented an evaluation that reviewed the effectiveness of my own assessment practice, taking account of the views of learners and others. Furthermore, it identified areas for improvement in my own assessment practice. References Gravells, A. (2013). The award in education and training. Los Angeles, California: SAGE. Johnson, R. S., Mims-Cox, J. S., & Doyle-Nichols, A. (2006). Developing portfolios in education: A guide to reflection, inquiry, and assessment. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Scottish Qualifications Authority. (2001). Guide to internal moderation for SQA centres. Glasgow: Scottish Qualifications Authority. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCIQFjAA&url=http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/ProfessionalDiscussion.pdf&ei=VlqiVKuqGoOAzAOPs4CQCw&usg=AFQjCNEmQ0k81HwhkjtiYiU__r2ft3ZbZA&sig2=UQ4WNDtx642VM1OKCk6wUA&bvm=bv.82001339,d.ZGUScottish Qualifications Authority. (2014).Internal Assessment, External Assessment, and Assessment for Learning — a think piece for those involved in developing assessments. (2014, January 1). Retrieved December 30, 2014, from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCkQFjAB&url=http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/25GuideToAssessment.pdf&ei=VlqiVKuqGoOAzAOPs4CQCw&usg=AFQjCNHimFgXezPk-X8HlGSKZW94HkSMiA&sig2=iFz8zIK5iTW2A_b17JdJqQ&bvm=bv.82001339,d.ZGU Source document

Waiting for the phone call

The room is stuffy. It has a gaudy lino floor with pattern rubbed away in front of the sofa and round the table; the walls are damp and cluttered with old calendars and pictures torn from magazines. There is a rotten stench. The mantelpiece by the fireplace is filled with china ornaments: big-eyed flop-eared rabbits and beribboned kittens and flowery milkmaids and a porcelain doll wearing a Victorian dress and her long, golden hair in two neat plaits. The room is silent; except for the steady paced ‘tick-tock' from the ancient Grand-father clock. It is Dorothy's birthday, 12th August. She is hunched up on her old tacky sofa on an early August morning. Dorothy is startled by birdsong echoing across the garden outside and, for a long time, she stares in confused remembrance towards where the swelling orange sun is burning the faded floral wallpaper across from her old-fashioned table. ‘It's my birthday,' she finally realises. ‘I'm seventy-six today. Where did it go?' Climbing painfully from a lumpy sofa, standing in a striped night dress by the window, Dorothy stares outside in her back garden. There's much too be done. Later. Much later. These days it's all weed killing, backache and sore bones. ‘It's my birthday.' Dorothy's cat slithers past a glass sharp wall and drops beside its shadow under an apple tree, stalking anxious sparrows. Under the broken birdhouse a mouse plays with a nibble of yesterday's bread. Shadows shrink in bright shyness against all the garden fences and the last star melts into dawn rise. There's heat in the breathless August day already. Dorothy sits in her kitchen. Silent. The house, holding its breath around her, the roof heavy and oven baked. Dorothy's thick veined hands brush toast crumbs from the plastic tabletop and when she moves her faded dainty feet dust dances giddily on the sun patched carpet. She listens to the awakening of the new day: the clock on the dresser ticks hurriedly and the letter box snaps awake. Dorothy walks to the hall and picks up bills and ads that promise discounts and holidays abroad, Dorothy has never been out of England, never been on a plane. Her tired eyes examine the envelopes at arm's length. There are no birthday cards to sigh over – Not even from her family! Returning to the familiar kitchen she slides a knife along her letters, slitting out the folded information. It's better than nothing. Even if the electricity is red and overdue – At least, they keep in touch. No longer absorbed in her letter opening task Dorothy looks at the sunlight shining blindly on her glazed, brown teapot and then she pours some lukewarm tea. She sits and thinks about birthdays back then – Cakes and drinks, songs and celebrations and her precious beloved family members spending time with her on her special day. Back when. ‘Time flies,' she says. She's talking to herself most days – who else will listen? Up in the still shadowed parlour a clock chimes the hour and Dorothy rises tiredly and prepares to face the day. She stumbles into the living room and looks up to the mantelpiece. No birthday cards – Only a picture of her and her adorable grandchildren, Steven and Carol. Her eyes close. She becomes delirious with dreaming†¦ Carol skipping up the lawn with a small straw basket, picking up little daisies and carefully placing them in the basket. Steven, being 2 years old, filling the bird house with crunchy treats awaiting the magpies to glide in. Dorothy is stood under the apple tree, tip-toeing up and grabbing fresh, ripe apples for her relatives. Carol and Steven run over to Dorothy and wrap their arms tightly around her as if they were to never let go†¦ Dorothy smiles and wishes she could still feel their small hands around her waist, grabbing securely. She dresses and walks to the front door and checks the windows and the bolts and all's secure. When the night time house creaks with its own age, Dorothy thinks of burglars and imagined violations and trembles in case they invade her. Dorothy swings open the front door and sees Carol and Steven stands there, smiling like sunlight. ‘Happy birthday Grandmother!' No longer astonished, Dorothy smiles back and sighs because they aren't really there. Her head sinks and she wonders back to living room. She notices the phone on the table. She slides over to it. Gently picks it up to check if the dial tone is there – she is reassured and drops it down. No phone calls. No phone messages. No birthday cards. She collapses into her tacky sofa. When she turns on the television the news assaults her soul. The world is littered with dead children and pain. The world has gone mad with cruelty and nobody seems to have noticed. It was different back in her day, when children could go out and play happily on the street without anybody worrying that someone would come abruptly attack them. Back when. She is startled by the sharp ringing of the phone. Her heart is pounding – could this be the phone call she has been waiting for all day? Is this her treasured family? She reaches over and clasps the phone. ‘Hello?' she asks waiting urgently for answer. ‘Hello. My name is Abigail Taylor calling on behalf of†¦' the woman replied. Dorothy slowly lowers the handset and replaces it back in the holder. She stands there paralysed. A tiny tear drop trickles down her wrinkly skin. She felt so much pain it was as if someone had stabbed her millions of times in the heart. What is the point of living if there is nobody who even knows you exist? The Grandfather clock strikes six in the evening. She strolls back to the photo of her with her grandchildren. Dorothy bursts out in tears – her eyes sore and red and waterfalls of tears flowing down her face. She picks up the photo and holds it against her broken heart. Dorothy still hopes to get that special phone call from her much-loved grandchildren.